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Int J Mol Sci
2018 Feb 06;192:. doi: 10.3390/ijms19020492.
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Plant Cation-Chloride Cotransporters (CCC): Evolutionary Origins and Functional Insights.
Henderson SW
,
Wege S
,
Gilliham M
.
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Genomes of unicellular and multicellular green algae, mosses, grasses and dicots harbor genes encoding cation-chloride cotransporters (CCC). CCC proteins from the plant kingdom have been comparatively less well investigated than their animal counterparts, but proteins from both plants and animals have been shown to mediate ion fluxes, and are involved in regulation of osmotic processes. In this review, we show that CCC proteins from plants form two distinct phylogenetic clades (CCC1 and CCC2). Some lycophytes and bryophytes possess members from each clade, most land plants only have members of the CCC1 clade, and green algae possess only the CCC2 clade. It is currently unknown whether CCC1 and CCC2 proteins have similar or distinct functions, however they are both more closely related to animal KCC proteins compared to NKCCs. Existing heterologous expression systems that have been used to functionally characterize plant CCC proteins, namely yeast and Xenopus laevis oocytes, have limitations that are discussed. Studies from plants exposed to chemical inhibitors of animal CCC protein function are reviewed for their potential to discern CCC function in planta. Thus far, mutations in plant CCC genes have been evaluated only in two species of angiosperms, and such mutations cause a diverse array of phenotypes-seemingly more than could simply be explained by localized disruption of ion transport alone. We evaluate the putative roles of plant CCC proteins and suggest areas for future investigation.
Figure 1. Phylogenetic relationship of the plant CCC family shows two distinct clades. Maximum likelihood tree rooted to yeast CCC “Vhc1”. Generated using MUSCLE alignment, Gblocks curation followed by PhyML phylogeny (www.phylogeny.fr) [15]. See Table S1 for accession numbers.
Figure 2. Amino acid sequence alignment of selected plant CCC proteins from Table 1 and Figure 1. Alignment was generated using Clustal Omega [16] and edited using Geneious R8 (Biomatters). Percent identity is shown above the alignment (green 100%, brown 30% to 99%, red < 30%). Similarity shading is: black 100% similar; dark grey 80% to 99% similar; light grey 60% to 79% similar and white <60% similar. For list of protein accession numbers, see Supplementary Table S1. For a percent identity matrix, see Table S2.
Figure 3. Phenotypes of mature Arabidopsis (A); and rice (44 days after sowing) (B) ccc1 knockout plants compared to their respective wildtypes. The Arabidopsis knockout displays a complete loss of apical dominance, dwarfed growth, shorter siliques and reduced seed set [3], while the rice ccc displays dwarfed growth and a reduced leaf blade size [6].
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